diff --git a/internal/dns/decode.go b/internal/dns/decode.go
index a909f24..3e868f1 100644
--- a/internal/dns/decode.go
+++ b/internal/dns/decode.go
@@ -2,6 +2,7 @@ package dns
 
 import (
 	"fmt"
+	"strings"
 
 	"github.com/miekg/dns"
 )
@@ -14,6 +15,8 @@ const (
 	ResponseNODATA
 	ResponseNXDOMAIN
 	ResponseSERVFAIL
+	ResponseREFUSED
+	ResponseNOTIMPL
 	ResponseOther
 )
 
@@ -29,6 +32,10 @@ func (rc ResponseClassification) String() string {
 		return "nxdomain"
 	case ResponseSERVFAIL:
 		return "servfail"
+	case ResponseREFUSED:
+		return "refused"
+	case ResponseNOTIMPL:
+		return "notimp"
 	default:
 		return "other"
 	}
@@ -45,6 +52,13 @@ type DecodedResponse struct {
 	Authority          []dns.RR
 	Additional         []dns.RR
 	CNAMEChain         []string
+	DNAMEMappings      []DNAMEMapping
+}
+
+// DNAMEMapping holds a DNAME record's owner and target for redirect synthesis.
+type DNAMEMapping struct {
+	Owner  string // e.g., "example.com."
+	Target string // e.g., "example.net."
 }
 
 func DecodeResponse(msg *dns.Msg) *DecodedResponse {
@@ -62,6 +76,7 @@ func DecodeResponse(msg *dns.Msg) *DecodedResponse {
 		Authority:          msg.Ns,
 		Additional:         msg.Extra,
 		CNAMEChain:         extractCNAMEChain(msg),
+		DNAMEMappings:      extractDNAMEMappings(msg),
 	}
 
 	d.Classification = classify(msg)
@@ -75,6 +90,10 @@ func classify(msg *dns.Msg) ResponseClassification {
 		return ResponseNXDOMAIN
 	case dns.RcodeServerFailure:
 		return ResponseSERVFAIL
+	case dns.RcodeRefused:
+		return ResponseREFUSED
+	case dns.RcodeNotImplemented:
+		return ResponseNOTIMPL
 	case dns.RcodeSuccess:
 		return classifySuccess(msg)
 	default:
@@ -125,6 +144,33 @@ func extractCNAMEChain(msg *dns.Msg) []string {
 	return chain
 }
 
+func extractDNAMEMappings(msg *dns.Msg) []DNAMEMapping {
+	var mappings []DNAMEMapping
+	for _, rr := range msg.Answer {
+		if dname, ok := rr.(*dns.DNAME); ok {
+			mappings = append(mappings, DNAMEMapping{
+				Owner:  dns.Fqdn(dname.Hdr.Name),
+				Target: dns.Fqdn(dname.Target),
+			})
+		}
+	}
+	return mappings
+}
+
+// SynthesizeCNAMEFromDNAME computes the CNAME target for queryName given a DNAME mapping.
+// Returns empty string if queryName is not a strict subdomain of dnameOwner.
+func SynthesizeCNAMEFromDNAME(queryName, dnameOwner, dnameTarget string) string {
+	q := strings.ToLower(dns.Fqdn(queryName))
+	owner := strings.ToLower(dns.Fqdn(dnameOwner))
+	target := strings.ToLower(dns.Fqdn(dnameTarget))
+
+	if !dns.IsSubDomain(owner, q) || q == owner {
+		return ""
+	}
+	prefix := strings.TrimSuffix(q, owner)
+	return prefix + target
+}
+
 func IsTruncated(msg *dns.Msg) bool {
 	return msg != nil && msg.Truncated
 }
diff --git a/internal/dns/query.go b/internal/dns/query.go
index 0fb0edc..61b1e82 100644
--- a/internal/dns/query.go
+++ b/internal/dns/query.go
@@ -93,7 +93,7 @@ func QueryWithExchange(ctx context.Context, server net.IP, name string, qtype ui
 			select {
 			case <-ctx.Done():
 				return nil, fmt.Errorf("query retries cancelled: %w", ctx.Err())
-			case <-time.After(100 * time.Millisecond):
+			case <-time.After(backoffDelay(attempt)):
 			}
 		}
 
@@ -156,7 +156,7 @@ func IterativeQueryWithExchange(ctx context.Context, server net.IP, name string,
 			select {
 			case <-ctx.Done():
 				return nil, fmt.Errorf("query retries cancelled: %w", ctx.Err())
-			case <-time.After(100 * time.Millisecond):
+			case <-time.After(backoffDelay(attempt)):
 			}
 		}
 
@@ -195,6 +195,20 @@ func IterativeQueryWithExchange(ctx context.Context, server net.IP, name string,
 	return nil, fmt.Errorf("iterative query %s %s failed after %d retries: %w", name, QNameType(qtype), cfg.Retries, lastErr)
 }
 
+// backoffDelay computes the wait duration before the given retry attempt (1-indexed).
+// Delays: attempt=1 → 100ms, attempt=2 → 200ms, attempt=3 → 400ms, capped at 2s.
+func backoffDelay(attempt int) time.Duration {
+	if attempt <= 0 {
+		return 0
+	}
+	delay := time.Duration(uint(1)<<uint(attempt-1)) * 100 * time.Millisecond
+	const maxDelay = 2 * time.Second
+	if delay > maxDelay {
+		return maxDelay
+	}
+	return delay
+}
+
 func buildQuery(name string, qtype uint16, udpSize int) *dns.Msg {
 	m := new(dns.Msg)
 	m.SetQuestion(dns.Fqdn(name), qtype)
diff --git a/internal/dns/robustness_test.go b/internal/dns/robustness_test.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c37fc70
--- /dev/null
+++ b/internal/dns/robustness_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,139 @@
+package dns
+
+import (
+	"testing"
+	"time"
+
+	"github.com/miekg/dns"
+)
+
+func TestDecodeResponseREFUSED(t *testing.T) {
+	msg := newTestMsg(dns.RcodeRefused)
+	d := DecodeResponse(msg)
+	if d.Classification != ResponseREFUSED {
+		t.Errorf("classification = %v, want ResponseREFUSED", d.Classification)
+	}
+	if d.RcodeName != "REFUSED" {
+		t.Errorf("RcodeName = %q, want REFUSED", d.RcodeName)
+	}
+}
+
+func TestDecodeResponseNOTIMPL(t *testing.T) {
+	msg := newTestMsg(dns.RcodeNotImplemented)
+	d := DecodeResponse(msg)
+	if d.Classification != ResponseNOTIMPL {
+		t.Errorf("classification = %v, want ResponseNOTIMPL", d.Classification)
+	}
+	if d.RcodeName != "NOTIMP" {
+		t.Errorf("RcodeName = %q, want NOTIMP", d.RcodeName)
+	}
+}
+
+func TestDecodeResponseREFUSEDString(t *testing.T) {
+	if got := ResponseREFUSED.String(); got != "refused" {
+		t.Errorf("ResponseREFUSED.String() = %q, want \"refused\"", got)
+	}
+	if got := ResponseNOTIMPL.String(); got != "notimp" {
+		t.Errorf("ResponseNOTIMPL.String() = %q, want \"notimp\"", got)
+	}
+}
+
+func TestExtractDNAMEMappings(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Run("no DNAME", func(t *testing.T) {
+		msg := new(dns.Msg)
+		msg.Answer = append(msg.Answer, &dns.A{
+			Hdr: dns.RR_Header{Name: "example.com.", Rrtype: dns.TypeA},
+			A:   MustParseIP("1.2.3.4"),
+		})
+		d := DecodeResponse(msg)
+		if len(d.DNAMEMappings) != 0 {
+			t.Errorf("expected 0 DNAME mappings, got %d", len(d.DNAMEMappings))
+		}
+	})
+
+	t.Run("DNAME in answer", func(t *testing.T) {
+		msg := new(dns.Msg)
+		msg.SetReply(new(dns.Msg))
+		msg.Answer = append(msg.Answer, &dns.DNAME{
+			Hdr:    dns.RR_Header{Name: "example.com.", Rrtype: dns.TypeDNAME, Class: dns.ClassINET, Ttl: 300},
+			Target: "example.net.",
+		})
+		d := DecodeResponse(msg)
+		if len(d.DNAMEMappings) != 1 {
+			t.Fatalf("expected 1 DNAME mapping, got %d", len(d.DNAMEMappings))
+		}
+		if d.DNAMEMappings[0].Owner != "example.com." {
+			t.Errorf("Owner = %q, want %q", d.DNAMEMappings[0].Owner, "example.com.")
+		}
+		if d.DNAMEMappings[0].Target != "example.net." {
+			t.Errorf("Target = %q, want %q", d.DNAMEMappings[0].Target, "example.net.")
+		}
+	})
+}
+
+func TestSynthesizeCNAMEFromDNAME(t *testing.T) {
+	tests := []struct {
+		queryName   string
+		dnameOwner  string
+		dnameTarget string
+		want        string
+	}{
+		{
+			queryName:   "foo.example.com.",
+			dnameOwner:  "example.com.",
+			dnameTarget: "example.net.",
+			want:        "foo.example.net.",
+		},
+		{
+			queryName:   "bar.foo.example.com.",
+			dnameOwner:  "example.com.",
+			dnameTarget: "example.net.",
+			want:        "bar.foo.example.net.",
+		},
+		{
+			// Owner itself is not redirected
+			queryName:   "example.com.",
+			dnameOwner:  "example.com.",
+			dnameTarget: "example.net.",
+			want:        "",
+		},
+		{
+			// Not a subdomain
+			queryName:   "other.com.",
+			dnameOwner:  "example.com.",
+			dnameTarget: "example.net.",
+			want:        "",
+		},
+	}
+
+	for _, tt := range tests {
+		got := SynthesizeCNAMEFromDNAME(tt.queryName, tt.dnameOwner, tt.dnameTarget)
+		if got != tt.want {
+			t.Errorf("SynthesizeCNAMEFromDNAME(%q, %q, %q) = %q, want %q",
+				tt.queryName, tt.dnameOwner, tt.dnameTarget, got, tt.want)
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+func TestBackoffDelay(t *testing.T) {
+	tests := []struct {
+		attempt int
+		want    time.Duration
+	}{
+		{0, 0},
+		{1, 100 * time.Millisecond},
+		{2, 200 * time.Millisecond},
+		{3, 400 * time.Millisecond},
+		{4, 800 * time.Millisecond},
+		{5, 1600 * time.Millisecond},
+		{6, 2000 * time.Millisecond}, // capped at 2s
+		{10, 2000 * time.Millisecond}, // still capped
+	}
+
+	for _, tt := range tests {
+		got := backoffDelay(tt.attempt)
+		if got != tt.want {
+			t.Errorf("backoffDelay(%d) = %v, want %v", tt.attempt, got, tt.want)
+		}
+	}
+}
diff --git a/internal/output/stats.go b/internal/output/stats.go
index a7df3d2..a6b0456 100644
--- a/internal/output/stats.go
+++ b/internal/output/stats.go
@@ -138,6 +138,12 @@ func summaryTypeLabel(respType string) string {
 		return "name does not exist"
 	case "servfail":
 		return "resulted in SERVFAIL"
+	case "refused":
+		return "query refused by server"
+	case "notimp":
+		return "query type not implemented by server"
+	case "cname_loop":
+		return "resulted in a CNAME loop"
 	case "error":
 		return "resulted in an error"
 	case "referral":
diff --git a/internal/output/text.go b/internal/output/text.go
index a5f6fae..dd43c0c 100644
--- a/internal/output/text.go
+++ b/internal/output/text.go
@@ -210,8 +210,22 @@ func (f *textFormatter) formatResultLine(result traverse.TraversalResult) string
 		return f.colorize(fmt.Sprintf("%s name does not exist", prob), colorYellow)
 	case traverse.RespSERVFAIL:
 		return f.colorize(fmt.Sprintf("%s resulted in SERVFAIL", prob), colorRed)
+	case traverse.RespREFUSED:
+		return f.colorize(fmt.Sprintf("%s query refused by server", prob), colorRed)
+	case traverse.RespNOTIMPL:
+		return f.colorize(fmt.Sprintf("%s query type not implemented by server", prob), colorRed)
+	case traverse.RespCNAMELoop:
+		msg := "CNAME loop detected"
+		if result.Response.ErrorMessage != "" {
+			msg = result.Response.ErrorMessage
+		}
+		return f.colorize(fmt.Sprintf("%s %s", prob, msg), colorRed)
 	case traverse.RespError:
-		return f.colorize(fmt.Sprintf("%s resulted in an error", prob), colorRed)
+		msg := "resulted in an error"
+		if result.Response.ErrorMessage != "" {
+			msg = result.Response.ErrorMessage
+		}
+		return f.colorize(fmt.Sprintf("%s %s", prob, msg), colorRed)
 	default:
 		return fmt.Sprintf("%s %s", prob, result.Response.Type)
 	}
diff --git a/internal/traverse/referral.go b/internal/traverse/referral.go
index 3bdfe8a..48e461a 100644
--- a/internal/traverse/referral.go
+++ b/internal/traverse/referral.go
@@ -236,3 +236,17 @@ func getVisitedNames(visited map[string]bool) []string {
 	}
 	return names
 }
+
+// IsNameInChain reports whether name appears anywhere in this referral's ancestor
+// chain, including this referral itself. Used for CNAME loop detection.
+func (r *Referral) IsNameInChain(name string) bool {
+	n := miekgdns.Fqdn(strings.ToLower(name))
+	curr := r
+	for curr != nil {
+		if curr.Name == n {
+			return true
+		}
+		curr = curr.Parent
+	}
+	return false
+}
diff --git a/internal/traverse/response.go b/internal/traverse/response.go
index 0cbc6d6..be516c4 100644
--- a/internal/traverse/response.go
+++ b/internal/traverse/response.go
@@ -16,6 +16,9 @@ const (
 	RespNODATA
 	RespNXDOMAIN
 	RespSERVFAIL
+	RespREFUSED
+	RespNOTIMPL
+	RespCNAMELoop
 	RespError
 )
 
@@ -33,6 +36,12 @@ func (rt ResponseType) String() string {
 		return "nxdomain"
 	case RespSERVFAIL:
 		return "servfail"
+	case RespREFUSED:
+		return "refused"
+	case RespNOTIMPL:
+		return "notimp"
+	case RespCNAMELoop:
+		return "cname_loop"
 	case RespError:
 		return "error"
 	default:
@@ -41,11 +50,12 @@ func (rt ResponseType) String() string {
 }
 
 type Response struct {
-	Referral *Referral
-	Server   net.IP
-	Cache    *InfoCache
-	Decoded  *dns.DecodedResponse
-	Type     ResponseType
+	Referral     *Referral
+	Server       net.IP
+	Cache        *InfoCache
+	Decoded      *dns.DecodedResponse
+	Type         ResponseType
+	ErrorMessage string
 }
 
 func NewResponse(ref *Referral, server net.IP, cache *InfoCache) *Response {
@@ -59,15 +69,28 @@ func NewResponse(ref *Referral, server net.IP, cache *InfoCache) *Response {
 func (r *Response) Process(msg *miekgdns.Msg) *Response {
 	if msg == nil {
 		r.Type = RespError
+		r.ErrorMessage = "nil DNS response"
 		return r
 	}
 
 	r.Decoded = dns.DecodeResponse(msg)
 	if r.Decoded == nil {
 		r.Type = RespError
+		r.ErrorMessage = "failed to decode DNS response"
 		return r
 	}
 
+	// Synthesize CNAME from DNAME when the server didn't include a synthesized CNAME record.
+	if len(r.Decoded.CNAMEChain) == 0 && r.Referral != nil && len(r.Decoded.DNAMEMappings) > 0 {
+		for _, dm := range r.Decoded.DNAMEMappings {
+			synthesized := dns.SynthesizeCNAMEFromDNAME(r.Referral.Name, dm.Owner, dm.Target)
+			if synthesized != "" {
+				r.Decoded.CNAMEChain = append(r.Decoded.CNAMEChain, synthesized)
+				break
+			}
+		}
+	}
+
 	r.Type = r.classify()
 	return r
 }
@@ -78,6 +101,10 @@ func (r *Response) classify() ResponseType {
 		return RespNXDOMAIN
 	case dns.ResponseSERVFAIL:
 		return RespSERVFAIL
+	case dns.ResponseREFUSED:
+		return RespREFUSED
+	case dns.ResponseNOTIMPL:
+		return RespNOTIMPL
 	case dns.ResponseAnswer:
 		if len(r.Decoded.CNAMEChain) > 0 && !r.hasFinalAnswer() {
 			return RespCNAMEFollow
@@ -97,6 +124,9 @@ func (r *Response) hasFinalAnswer() bool {
 		if _, ok := rr.(*miekgdns.CNAME); ok {
 			continue
 		}
+		if _, ok := rr.(*miekgdns.DNAME); ok {
+			continue
+		}
 		return true
 	}
 	return false
@@ -200,7 +230,7 @@ func (r *Response) resolveGlue(child *Referral) {
 
 func (r *Response) IsTerminal() bool {
 	switch r.Type {
-	case RespAnswer, RespNODATA, RespNXDOMAIN, RespSERVFAIL, RespError:
+	case RespAnswer, RespNODATA, RespNXDOMAIN, RespSERVFAIL, RespREFUSED, RespNOTIMPL, RespCNAMELoop, RespError:
 		return true
 	default:
 		return false
diff --git a/internal/traverse/robustness_test.go b/internal/traverse/robustness_test.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3057cc8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/internal/traverse/robustness_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,376 @@
+package traverse
+
+import (
+	"context"
+	"errors"
+	"net"
+	"testing"
+
+	"github.com/miekg/dns"
+)
+
+// TestCNAMELoopDetected verifies that a two-step CNAME loop (A → B → A) is
+// detected without infinite recursion and produces a RespCNAMELoop result.
+func TestCNAMELoopDetected(t *testing.T) {
+	// www.example.com → CNAME → alias.example.com → CNAME → www.example.com (loop)
+	cnameToAlias := new(dns.Msg)
+	cnameToAlias.SetReply(new(dns.Msg))
+	cnameToAlias.Answer = append(cnameToAlias.Answer, &dns.CNAME{
+		Hdr:    dns.RR_Header{Name: "www.example.com.", Rrtype: dns.TypeCNAME, Class: dns.ClassINET},
+		Target: "alias.example.com.",
+	})
+
+	cnameBack := new(dns.Msg)
+	cnameBack.SetReply(new(dns.Msg))
+	cnameBack.Answer = append(cnameBack.Answer, &dns.CNAME{
+		Hdr:    dns.RR_Header{Name: "alias.example.com.", Rrtype: dns.TypeCNAME, Class: dns.ClassINET},
+		Target: "www.example.com.",
+	})
+
+	tr := NewTraverser(&TraverserConfig{
+		MaxDepth:  10,
+		QueryType: dnsTypeA,
+		RootAddrs: []net.IP{net.ParseIP("198.41.0.4")},
+	})
+	tr.SetExchange(func(ctx context.Context, server string, msg *dns.Msg, useTCP bool) (*dns.Msg, error) {
+		q := msg.Question[0]
+		switch q.Name {
+		case "www.example.com.":
+			return cnameToAlias.Copy(), nil
+		case "alias.example.com.":
+			return cnameBack.Copy(), nil
+		}
+		return nil, nil
+	})
+
+	ctx := context.Background()
+	results, err := tr.Traverse(ctx, "www.example.com")
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("unexpected error: %v", err)
+	}
+
+	foundLoop := false
+	for _, r := range results {
+		if r.Response != nil && r.Response.Type == RespCNAMELoop {
+			foundLoop = true
+			if r.Response.ErrorMessage == "" {
+				t.Error("expected non-empty ErrorMessage on CNAME loop result")
+			}
+		}
+	}
+	if !foundLoop {
+		t.Error("expected RespCNAMELoop result for CNAME loop A → B → A")
+	}
+}
+
+// TestCNAMEDirectLoop verifies that a direct self-loop (A → A) is handled.
+func TestCNAMEDirectLoop(t *testing.T) {
+	selfLoop := new(dns.Msg)
+	selfLoop.SetReply(new(dns.Msg))
+	selfLoop.Answer = append(selfLoop.Answer, &dns.CNAME{
+		Hdr:    dns.RR_Header{Name: "www.example.com.", Rrtype: dns.TypeCNAME, Class: dns.ClassINET},
+		Target: "www.example.com.",
+	})
+
+	tr := NewTraverser(&TraverserConfig{
+		MaxDepth:  10,
+		QueryType: dnsTypeA,
+		RootAddrs: []net.IP{net.ParseIP("198.41.0.4")},
+	})
+	tr.SetExchange(func(ctx context.Context, server string, msg *dns.Msg, useTCP bool) (*dns.Msg, error) {
+		return selfLoop.Copy(), nil
+	})
+
+	ctx := context.Background()
+	results, err := tr.Traverse(ctx, "www.example.com")
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("unexpected error: %v", err)
+	}
+
+	foundLoop := false
+	for _, r := range results {
+		if r.Response != nil && r.Response.Type == RespCNAMELoop {
+			foundLoop = true
+		}
+	}
+	if !foundLoop {
+		t.Error("expected RespCNAMELoop for direct self-referencing CNAME")
+	}
+}
+
+// TestREFUSEDResponse verifies that a REFUSED rcode is classified as RespREFUSED.
+func TestREFUSEDResponse(t *testing.T) {
+	refusedResp := new(dns.Msg)
+	refusedResp.Rcode = dns.RcodeRefused
+
+	tr := NewTraverser(&TraverserConfig{
+		MaxDepth:  5,
+		QueryType: dnsTypeA,
+		RootAddrs: []net.IP{net.ParseIP("198.41.0.4")},
+	})
+	tr.SetExchange(func(ctx context.Context, server string, msg *dns.Msg, useTCP bool) (*dns.Msg, error) {
+		return refusedResp.Copy(), nil
+	})
+
+	ctx := context.Background()
+	results, err := tr.Traverse(ctx, "example.com")
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("unexpected error: %v", err)
+	}
+	if len(results) == 0 {
+		t.Fatal("expected at least 1 result")
+	}
+	if results[0].Response.Type != RespREFUSED {
+		t.Errorf("Type = %s, want refused", results[0].Response.Type)
+	}
+	if !results[0].Response.IsTerminal() {
+		t.Error("REFUSED should be a terminal response")
+	}
+}
+
+// TestNOTIMPLResponse verifies that a NOTIMP rcode is classified as RespNOTIMPL.
+func TestNOTIMPLResponse(t *testing.T) {
+	notImplResp := new(dns.Msg)
+	notImplResp.Rcode = dns.RcodeNotImplemented
+
+	tr := NewTraverser(&TraverserConfig{
+		MaxDepth:  5,
+		QueryType: dnsTypeA,
+		RootAddrs: []net.IP{net.ParseIP("198.41.0.4")},
+	})
+	tr.SetExchange(func(ctx context.Context, server string, msg *dns.Msg, useTCP bool) (*dns.Msg, error) {
+		return notImplResp.Copy(), nil
+	})
+
+	ctx := context.Background()
+	results, err := tr.Traverse(ctx, "example.com")
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("unexpected error: %v", err)
+	}
+	if len(results) == 0 {
+		t.Fatal("expected at least 1 result")
+	}
+	if results[0].Response.Type != RespNOTIMPL {
+		t.Errorf("Type = %s, want notimp", results[0].Response.Type)
+	}
+	if !results[0].Response.IsTerminal() {
+		t.Error("NOTIMP should be a terminal response")
+	}
+}
+
+// TestGracefulDegradationUnreachableServer verifies that when some servers are
+// unreachable, traversal continues with the remaining servers and does not panic.
+func TestGracefulDegradationUnreachableServer(t *testing.T) {
+	answerResp := new(dns.Msg)
+	answerResp.SetReply(new(dns.Msg))
+	answerResp.Answer = append(answerResp.Answer, &dns.A{
+		Hdr: dns.RR_Header{Name: "example.com.", Rrtype: dnsTypeA, Class: dns.ClassINET, Ttl: 300},
+		A:   net.ParseIP("93.184.216.34"),
+	})
+
+	// Referral with two nameservers; first always fails, second provides the answer.
+	referralMsg := new(dns.Msg)
+	referralMsg.Rcode = dns.RcodeSuccess
+	referralMsg.Authoritative = false
+	referralMsg.Ns = append(referralMsg.Ns,
+		&dns.NS{Hdr: dns.RR_Header{Name: "example.com.", Rrtype: dnsTypeNS}, Ns: "ns1.example.com."},
+		&dns.NS{Hdr: dns.RR_Header{Name: "example.com.", Rrtype: dnsTypeNS}, Ns: "ns2.example.com."},
+	)
+	referralMsg.Extra = append(referralMsg.Extra,
+		&dns.A{Hdr: dns.RR_Header{Name: "ns1.example.com.", Rrtype: dnsTypeA}, A: net.ParseIP("10.0.0.1")},
+		&dns.A{Hdr: dns.RR_Header{Name: "ns2.example.com.", Rrtype: dnsTypeA}, A: net.ParseIP("10.0.0.2")},
+	)
+
+	tr := NewTraverser(&TraverserConfig{
+		MaxDepth:  5,
+		QueryType: dnsTypeA,
+		RootAddrs: []net.IP{net.ParseIP("198.41.0.4")},
+	})
+	tr.SetExchange(func(ctx context.Context, server string, msg *dns.Msg, useTCP bool) (*dns.Msg, error) {
+		switch server {
+		case "198.41.0.4":
+			return referralMsg.Copy(), nil
+		case "10.0.0.1":
+			return nil, errors.New("connection refused")
+		case "10.0.0.2":
+			return answerResp.Copy(), nil
+		}
+		return nil, errors.New("unexpected server")
+	})
+
+	ctx := context.Background()
+	results, err := tr.Traverse(ctx, "example.com")
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("unexpected error: %v", err)
+	}
+
+	foundAnswer := false
+	for _, r := range results {
+		if r.Response != nil && r.Response.Type == RespAnswer {
+			foundAnswer = true
+		}
+	}
+	if !foundAnswer {
+		t.Error("expected an answer result from the reachable server")
+	}
+}
+
+// TestGracefulDegradationAllUnreachable verifies that when ALL servers fail,
+// the traversal returns a SERVFAIL result without panicking.
+func TestGracefulDegradationAllUnreachable(t *testing.T) {
+	tr := NewTraverser(&TraverserConfig{
+		MaxDepth:  5,
+		QueryType: dnsTypeA,
+		RootAddrs: []net.IP{net.ParseIP("198.41.0.4"), net.ParseIP("199.9.14.201")},
+	})
+	tr.SetExchange(func(ctx context.Context, server string, msg *dns.Msg, useTCP bool) (*dns.Msg, error) {
+		return nil, errors.New("network unreachable")
+	})
+
+	ctx := context.Background()
+	results, err := tr.Traverse(ctx, "example.com")
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("traversal must not return a top-level error: %v", err)
+	}
+	if len(results) == 0 {
+		t.Fatal("expected at least one result even on total failure")
+	}
+	last := results[len(results)-1]
+	if last.Response == nil {
+		t.Fatal("last result must have a response")
+	}
+	if last.Response.Type != RespSERVFAIL && last.Response.Type != RespError {
+		t.Errorf("expected SERVFAIL or error when all servers unreachable, got %s", last.Response.Type)
+	}
+}
+
+// TestDNAMEFollowNoSynthesizedCNAME verifies that a DNAME record in the answer
+// section synthesizes a CNAME follow when the server doesn't include one.
+func TestDNAMEFollowNoSynthesizedCNAME(t *testing.T) {
+	// Server returns DNAME only (no synthesized CNAME).
+	dnameResp := new(dns.Msg)
+	dnameResp.SetReply(new(dns.Msg))
+	dnameResp.Answer = append(dnameResp.Answer, &dns.DNAME{
+		Hdr:    dns.RR_Header{Name: "example.com.", Rrtype: dns.TypeDNAME, Class: dns.ClassINET, Ttl: 300},
+		Target: "example.net.",
+	})
+
+	answerResp := new(dns.Msg)
+	answerResp.SetReply(new(dns.Msg))
+	answerResp.Answer = append(answerResp.Answer, &dns.A{
+		Hdr: dns.RR_Header{Name: "www.example.net.", Rrtype: dnsTypeA, Class: dns.ClassINET, Ttl: 300},
+		A:   net.ParseIP("203.0.113.1"),
+	})
+
+	tr := NewTraverser(&TraverserConfig{
+		MaxDepth:  5,
+		QueryType: dnsTypeA,
+		RootAddrs: []net.IP{net.ParseIP("198.41.0.4")},
+	})
+	tr.SetExchange(func(ctx context.Context, server string, msg *dns.Msg, useTCP bool) (*dns.Msg, error) {
+		q := msg.Question[0]
+		if q.Name == "www.example.com." {
+			return dnameResp.Copy(), nil
+		}
+		if q.Name == "www.example.net." {
+			return answerResp.Copy(), nil
+		}
+		return nil, nil
+	})
+
+	ctx := context.Background()
+	results, err := tr.Traverse(ctx, "www.example.com")
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("unexpected error: %v", err)
+	}
+
+	foundCNAMEFollow := false
+	for _, r := range results {
+		if r.Response != nil && r.Response.Type == RespCNAMEFollow {
+			foundCNAMEFollow = true
+		}
+	}
+	if !foundCNAMEFollow {
+		t.Error("expected RespCNAMEFollow synthesized from DNAME record")
+	}
+}
+
+// TestIsNameInChain verifies the ancestor chain lookup.
+func TestIsNameInChain(t *testing.T) {
+	root := NewReferral("example.com", dnsTypeA, ".", 0, 1.0, nil)
+	child := NewReferral("www.example.com", dnsTypeA, "example.com.", 1, 1.0, root)
+	grandchild := NewReferral("sub.www.example.com", dnsTypeA, "www.example.com.", 2, 1.0, child)
+
+	tests := []struct {
+		ref  *Referral
+		name string
+		want bool
+	}{
+		{grandchild, "sub.www.example.com", true},   // self
+		{grandchild, "www.example.com", true},         // parent
+		{grandchild, "example.com", true},             // grandparent
+		{grandchild, "other.example.com", false},      // not in chain
+		{root, "example.com", true},                   // root matches itself
+		{root, "www.example.com", false},              // child not in chain from root
+	}
+
+	for _, tt := range tests {
+		got := tt.ref.IsNameInChain(tt.name)
+		if got != tt.want {
+			t.Errorf("IsNameInChain(%q) from %q = %v, want %v", tt.name, tt.ref.Name, got, tt.want)
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+// TestResponseTypeStrings verifies String() for new response types.
+func TestResponseTypeStrings(t *testing.T) {
+	tests := []struct {
+		rt   ResponseType
+		want string
+	}{
+		{RespReferral, "referral"},
+		{RespAnswer, "answer"},
+		{RespCNAMEFollow, "cname_follow"},
+		{RespNODATA, "nodata"},
+		{RespNXDOMAIN, "nxdomain"},
+		{RespSERVFAIL, "servfail"},
+		{RespREFUSED, "refused"},
+		{RespNOTIMPL, "notimp"},
+		{RespCNAMELoop, "cname_loop"},
+		{RespError, "error"},
+	}
+
+	for _, tt := range tests {
+		if got := tt.rt.String(); got != tt.want {
+			t.Errorf("ResponseType(%d).String() = %q, want %q", tt.rt, got, tt.want)
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+// TestMalformedResponseNoPanic verifies that a nil response from the exchange
+// function does not cause a panic, and produces an error result.
+func TestMalformedResponseNoPanic(t *testing.T) {
+	tr := NewTraverser(&TraverserConfig{
+		MaxDepth:  5,
+		QueryType: dnsTypeA,
+		RootAddrs: []net.IP{net.ParseIP("198.41.0.4")},
+	})
+	tr.SetExchange(func(ctx context.Context, server string, msg *dns.Msg, useTCP bool) (*dns.Msg, error) {
+		return nil, nil // nil response, no error
+	})
+
+	ctx := context.Background()
+	results, err := tr.Traverse(ctx, "example.com")
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("unexpected error: %v", err)
+	}
+	if len(results) == 0 {
+		t.Fatal("expected at least one result")
+	}
+	// Should produce error/servfail, not panic
+	for _, r := range results {
+		if r.Response == nil {
+			t.Error("result has nil response")
+		}
+	}
+}
diff --git a/internal/traverse/traverser.go b/internal/traverse/traverser.go
index 3b2c259..bd05edc 100644
--- a/internal/traverse/traverser.go
+++ b/internal/traverse/traverser.go
@@ -5,6 +5,7 @@ import (
 	"fmt"
 	"net"
 	"sync"
+	"time"
 
 	"github.com/hits/ExploreDNS/internal/dns"
 	miekgdns "github.com/miekg/dns"
@@ -141,7 +142,19 @@ func (t *Traverser) Traverse(ctx context.Context, name string) ([]TraversalResul
 		if resp.Type == RespCNAMEFollow {
 			follow := resp.CNAMEFollowReferral()
 			if follow != nil {
-				if !stack.Push(follow) {
+				// Detect CNAME loop: target name already appears in the ancestor chain.
+				if follow.Parent != nil && follow.Parent.IsNameInChain(follow.Name) {
+					mu.Lock()
+					results = append(results, TraversalResult{
+						Referral: follow,
+						Response: &Response{
+							Referral:     follow,
+							Type:         RespCNAMELoop,
+							ErrorMessage: fmt.Sprintf("CNAME loop detected: %s already in traversal chain", follow.Name),
+						},
+					})
+					mu.Unlock()
+				} else if !stack.Push(follow) {
 					mu.Lock()
 					results = append(results, TraversalResult{
 						Referral: follow,
@@ -412,12 +425,16 @@ func (t *Traverser) resolveGlueViaSystem(ctx context.Context, name string, cache
 
 	c := &miekgdns.Client{
 		Net:          "udp",
-		ReadTimeout:  5,
-		WriteTimeout: 5,
+		ReadTimeout:  5 * time.Second,
+		WriteTimeout: 5 * time.Second,
 	}
 	if deadline, ok := ctx.Deadline(); ok {
-		c.ReadTimeout = deadline.Sub(deadline)
-		c.WriteTimeout = deadline.Sub(deadline)
+		remaining := time.Until(deadline)
+		if remaining <= 0 {
+			return nil
+		}
+		c.ReadTimeout = remaining
+		c.WriteTimeout = remaining
 	}
 
 	fqdn := miekgdns.Fqdn(name)